| References | What Ancient Humans Ate | Agricultural Revolution |
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(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TajWHiUVPkA) "Bison hunters abandoned long-used site 1,100 years ago to adapt to changing climate," Frontiers, February 10, 2026. https://www.frontiersin.org/news/2026/02/10/bison-hunters-abandoned-site-1100-years-ago-changing-climate) WHAT PRE-AGRICULTURAL HUMANS COULD EAT Beyond insects and small animals (included in small quantities in the diets of some great apes), direct evidence for the hunting or scavenging of large herbivores (i.e., cutmarks) and, therefore, the addition of larger quantities of meat -- a high-calorie resource, with easily digestible amino acids, minerals and vitamins -- and animal fats, including through marrow extraction, to hominin diets dates to at least 2.5 mya.  It is likely that this addition contributed significantly to the evolutionary development of the genus Homo, including by allowing for tradeoffs between energy-expensive brain and gut tissue, and therefore, the growth of hominin brains.  However, there is no evidence for increased meat-eating directly prior to or with the emergence of H. erectus ~1.9 mya, and early evidence for the specialized hunting of prime-age large ungulates, described at many sites across the Middle Paleolithic in Eurasia, dates to 400-200 kya. Pre-agricultural humans could eat from the following menu depending on time period, geographic location and climate, seasonal fluctuations, and foodstuff availability: Raw/fresh, dried, fermented, deliberately putrefied, smoked, salted, or cooked meat, fat, offal, blood, milk, bone marrow, and chyme (including partially digested and microbially rich plant tissues) from ruminants (cattle, buffalo, bison, oxen, antelopes, gazelles, goats, deer, caribou, boks, moose, giraffes, hippopotami, camels and llamas, yaks, gaurs/Indian bison, bantengs/tembadau), swine and peccaries, horses, donkeys and zebras, tapirs, rhinoceros, kangaroos, possums and opposums, cats, lions and tigers, some bats, dogs, wolves and foxes, bears, skunks, raccoons, badgers, otters, some primates (including other humans), elephants/mammoths, ground sloths, aurochs, glyptodons, woolly rhinoceros, and other megafauna, rodents, guinea pigs and other small mammals, and scavenged carcasses killed by other predators; birds and their eggs; some frogs, salamanders, lizards, crocodilians and their eggs, and snakes and their eggs; assorted bony and cartilaginous fish and their eggs/roe, snapping or soft shell or sea turtles and their eggs, mollusks, crustaceans, some echinoderms, cephalopods, some jellyfish, sea squirts, some whales and dolphins, seals and walruses, manatees and dugongs; some earthworms; grasshoppers and locusts, beetles, crickets, ants, some bees and wasps, termites, some arachnids, some caterpillars and other insect pupae, larvae and eggs; green shoots, young roots/tubers/bulbs (including most parts of cattails for food, fiber, medicine, and insulation), sedges and larger-seeded grasses, herbs, some leaves, flowers, tendrils, nuts, and seeds; seasonal berries and other small fruit; most mosses and some ferns; some aquatic plants and sea vegetables; some mushrooms and fungi; honey, honeycomb, and bee pollen; maple, birch and other tree saps, in addition to small amounts of salt from mineral licks or evaporated sea water, dirt, mud, and clay. Water from rivers/creeks, natural ponds, mineral and fresh springs, ice melt, and collected rainwater. "Interestingly, the emergence of tool-assisted fish catching in early Homo dates to around 2.4 million years ago. Primate fish-eating habits suggest that hominins would have also started eating aquatic plants first, then accidentally sampled the aquatic animals clinging to their nightly feeding, and, having acquired a taste for a newfound meat, eventually transitioned to catching fish and other aquatic prey. Some researchers assert that an early human, Paranthropus boisei (2.5-1.15 mya), and early Homo dug into wetlands to add vertebrates [such as catfish and turtles] and invertebrates [such as shellfish and crustaceans] to what had previously been their predominantly plant-based diet. These aquatic animal foods yield plenty of salt and novel, high-quality nutrients, such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Similar to how these essential fatty acids may have led to brain growth in prehuman primates, DHA allowed for the brain to increase in size in early humans." (The Salt Fix by Dr. James DiNicolantonio, 2017, pg. 21) Early humans had around five copies of the amylase gene, which might have emerged after learning to control fire over 780,000 years ago. This adaptation may have helped break down tough fibers in starchy plants into sugars, improving nutrition. Studies show a significant increase in the prevalence of extra amylase genes in the DNA of people from this period, suggesting a strong pulse of natural selection favoring individuals with more copies. There's no clear evidence of cooking until about 500,000 years ago, but that does not mean hominins were not doing it much earlier. Steak tartare cut into bite-size pieces along with fatty brains and marrow gotten from rock-broken skulls and bones preceded cooking. The initial duplications of the salivary amylase gene locus, AMY1, occurred before the divergence of Homo sapiens humans (315 kya) from Neanderthals (243-40 kya) and Denisovans (200-32 kya), about 800 kya during the time of H. antecessor (1200-800 kya) and H. heidelbergensis (700-200 kya). The presence of duplication in three Neanderthal and one Denisovan genomes, therefore, suggests that increased starch use was occurring pre-800 kya, producing a selection environment for evolution in this gene. This is corroborated by recent aDNA evidence from the microbial profiles of Neanderthal and ancient human dental calculus, demonstrating the presence of oral streptococci with salivary amylase-binding capabilities not present in great apes and monkeys, and, therefore, suggesting a microbial co-adaptation caused by increased starch in host diets occurring with or prior to Neanderthals. Indeed, for hominins to meet the neurological and physical demands (e.g., endurance running, social cooperation, strategizing) of hunting, the easier-to-process energy afforded from starch-rich plant resources would likely have been critical. The second wave of amylase gene duplication occurred about 12,000 years ago with the agricultural revolution. As societies shifted to farming, diets changed to include more starch-rich crops like wheat, barley, and potatoes. As AMY1 copy number variation correlates with present human populations with high starch consumption, it has long been argued to have evolved due to diet-related selection pressures, albeit originally in the context of agriculture. (Rapid adaptive increase of amylase gene copy number in Indigenous Andeans, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-026-71450-8). It is speculated that physiological insulin resistance allows humans on a low-carbohydrate diet to conserve blood glucose for the energy-hungry brain... A significantly higher insulin resistance (low sensitivity) in a Central Asian population (Kirghiz) of historical herders was found, compared with a population of past farmers (Tajiks), despite both groups consuming similar diets. These findings indicate a genetic predisposition to high physiological insulin resistance levels among groups consuming mainly animal-sourced foods. Additionally, a significant difference in the prevalence of this resistance exists between groups with long-term exposure to agriculture and those that do not, such as Australian aborigines, who have higher resistance. If higher physiological insulin resistance is indeed ancestral, its past endurance suggests that high carbohydrate (starch, sugar) consumption was not prevalent. Neanderthals (243-40 kya) were so much more than just cave dwellers. Yes, and what percentage of them [and other early modern humans] actually lived in primitive buildings, huts, tipis, lean-to's, tents, windbreaks, thickets, tree houses, hollow tree trunks, under large trees, rock overhangs, etc. and other perishable/non-recorded materials rather than strictly in caves? See also: https://www.sott.net/article/506096-On-humanitys-earliest-attempts-to-make-a-home. Searching deeply into the South Africa's Northern Cape province Wonderwerk cave's stratigraphic record, scientists have found burnt animal bones dating to a period between 1.07 and 1.79 million years ago, most likely by Homo erectus. Previously, control of fire was dated to at least 780 kya, and its habitual use dates from around 400 kya, while Homo sapiens came about around 315 kya -- tougher meats and some root vegetables were able to be softened and made more easily digestible. Some twigs they used in fires may have been from fragrant plants and the humans found some of these added interesting tastes to their cooked meat. One large animal brought down by cooperative efforts -- including being run off a cliff or herded into a cul-de-sac or into shallow water to be killed there -- could provide a lot of food for a family or two. Thrown or planted wooden spears (3.3 mya Kenya) and knives (1.4 mya Spain), wooden darts (400 kya Germany, England, Tanzania), stone-tipped spears (>64 kya South Africa), rocks, clubs, axes (>45 kya Kimberley, Australia), throwing sticks (300 kya Germany), boomerangs (>40 kya Poland, 20 kya Australia), atlatl (17.5 kya France), or even slings (>8 kya Levant) could bring down some game, along with bows and arrows (>74 kya Ethiopia, >54 kya Europe, >48 kya Sri Lanka), sometimes while wearing camouflage. Snares and other traps, baits, decoys, nets (>8.5 kya Russia), hooks (>22 kya Okinawa), Leister spears (>5.5 kya) and covered pits could also be employed. Migration routes and times, nests, hibernation areas, watering holes, mineral licks, etc. could be learned and taught to other adults and children. Abundant herds, flocks, and schools could be targeted. Persistence hunting could be done by endurance trackers who would wear out game over a period of time and distance. Domesticated dogs (30? kya) could have helped chase down or tree a game animal. (For smaller game, falconry dates to over 4? kya) Butchering skills could differentiate between tender or tough, healthy or diseased meats, fats and offal -- while also providing some insight on how we ourselves were inside. Inedible game portions would be further put to use: skins, furs, pelts, feathers, wool, sinews, bones, grease, etc. The skins and furs allowed for more of the protective clothing, containers, and coverings. Trading with other clans/groups could also bring additional foods, weapons/tools and knowledge of improved hunting/gathering techniques. It is suggested that hunter-gatherers were likely to move towards sedentism ("site-occupation intensity") and broad-spectrum foraging, not in times of resource depression, but in resource-rich ecosystems, where the abundance and predictability of resources allowed for a reduction in mobility and increased sedentism. Further, hunter-gatherers would have themselves preferentially selected to live in such resource-abundant niches in the past, and would have then used niche construction practices to further enhance the abundance and predictability of these ecosystems. Ideal locations would be near a sea, marsh, lake, or river. Note: 8 kya there were a few fortified settlements with banks, ditches, pit-houses and other buildings, and stored food by hunter-gatherers in the abundant western Siberia taiga, before farming arrived. Domesticated livestock include boars/pigs (15-10.3? kya), sheep (11 kya), goats (10.5 kya), cattle (10.5 kya first domestication of aurochs into humpless taurine cattle in eastern Mediterranean, 9 kya second domestication into humped zebu cattle in Indus Valley, with ruminant milk fat residue on pottery shards dating back 9 kya from throughout the Near East and southeastern Europe], chickens (8-4? kya), geese (6-3? kya), ducks (6-1? kya), horses (5.7 kya, but as food 32 kya), camels (4.5 kya), and turkeys (2 kya). Beginning with the advent of animal husbandry, it became feasible to prevent or attenuate the seasonal decline in body fat (and hence in saturated fatty acids (SFA), the dominant (>50% fat energy) fatty acids in the fat storage depots (adipocytes) of wild mammals) by provisioning domesticated animals with stored plant foods. Furthermore, it became possible to consistently slaughter the animal at peak body fat percentage. Neolithic advances in food-processing procedures allowed for the storage of concentrated sources of animal SFAs for later consumption throughout the year (cheese -- likely began over 7 kya with the earliest direct evidence dating back to around 7 kya, deliberately being made in pottery with drainage holes in Poland and Croatia; butter -- in use since at least 6.5 kya, with the earliest known production of butter dating back to around 2.5 kya in ancient Mesopotamia; tallow -- at least 3 kya in Mesopotamia; and salted fatty meats -- over 2 kya in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Roman Empire). (The Pleistocene epoch/Paleolithic age lasted from 2.58-0.0117 mya. And the Holocene epoch started 11.7 kya. According to excavation director Necmi Karul, zooarchaeological and botanical analyses reveal that the inhabitants of Karahan Tepe (10,000 and 9500 BCE) relied heavily on gazelle meat as a primary protein source. However, the findings go further. Plant remains recovered from the site indicate that legumes (most beans, lentils, and chickpeas, for instance) played a crucial role in daily nutrition. This contrasts with earlier assumptions that cereals dominated Neolithic diets in the region. The presence of legumes suggests a more balanced and possibly seasonal food strategy, combining hunting with plant gathering or early cultivation. Comparative analysis with Göbekli Tepe highlights subtle but important differences. While both sites show evidence of intensive gazelle consumption, Göbekli Tepe presents a broader spectrum of animal species drawn from diverse ecological zones -- from lowland plains to mountainous areas. Karahan Tepe, by comparison, appears more focused in its subsistence patterns, though ongoing research may refine this picture. The climate of the area was wetter when Göbekli Tepe was occupied (c.9500-9000 BCE) than it is today. The site was surrounded by an open steppe grassland, with abundant wild cereals, including einkorn, wheat, and barley, and herds of grazing animals such as wild sheep, wild goat, gazelle, and equids. Large herds of goitered gazelle may have passed by the site in seasonal migrations. There is no evidence of substantial woodlands nearby; 90% of the charcoal recovered at the site was from pistachio or almond trees... Over 7,000 grinding stones have been found, spanning the entirety of the site's usage, which are suggested to have been used to process cereal based on phytoliths found in associated soil. However, it is unclear whether the cereal was wild or cultivated. (https://www.sott.net/article/505983-New-discoveries-at-12000-year-old-Karahantepe-Human-statues-animal-carvings-and-surprising-diet-uncovered; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6bekli_Tepe) THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION We tend to think that the agricultural evolution started in the Middle East some 12-14,000 years ago (12-14 kya) (at the start of the Holocene Epoch/Neolithic age), but it isn't that simple and neat. [The third last period of moderate to extensive glaciation occurred from 191-130 kya, during the Middle Paleolithic or Middle Old Stone Age which occurred c.300-50 kya.] A quantity of phytoliths (plant remains that contain silica) from grass spikelets associated with hearth features from both Theopetra Cave and Amud Cave in Greece, date to 124±16 kya and 70-55 kya respectively. Comparatively high densities of wild glume wheat (Triticum boeticum/diococcoides) glume bases and spikelets have been recovered (95% of the plant macrofossil assemblage), alongside other grass seeds and chaff at a site in Iran, suggesting the gathering and use of wild grasses 81-72 kya. [The second last period of moderate to extensive glaciation occurred from 71-57 kya.] There was a decrease in the abundance and then disappearance of wild glume wheat entirely by ~63 kya, in favor of wild pistachio and legumes. Abundant wild fruits, nuts, tubers and grains in season. From 70 kya in Iraqi Kurdistan comes burnt remains of a mixture of wild lentils, wild peas, wild grass seeds, wild mustard and wild pistachio (terebinth), soaked to remove bitter outer husks, ground together, combined with water but not salt, formed into cakes and cooked over fire. Grinding stones from 60 kya have been discovered in what is now Australia (first settled c.65 kya) along with evidence of long yams, pandanus kernels, and palm pith, possibly made into a paste. [The Upper Paleolithic or Later Old Stone Age occurred c.50-12 kya.] Plant macrofossils and starches recovered from a cave in Borneo, date to 46-34 kya, providing evidence for the use and processing of a range of plant resources, including fruits, nuts, seeds, underground storage organs, and palm pith. There is also evidence there for the use and processing of Pangium edule kernels, which require an extended period of dry-leaching (up to 40 days), as well as cooking, for their detoxification. Starch grains on grinding stones date back 30 kya in what are now Italy, Russia and the Czech Republic. Starch grains from wild cattail roots/rhizomes date from this time in Italy and China. (Not all grinding stones were for foodstuffs: pigments such as ochre also needed to be processed using this technology [Note: Before this time, wild cereals were seen as "third choice" foods, due to their harvesting and processing requirements. Of course, when there soon became a surplus of grains, storage methods would have to be developed -- which were challenged by "shelf-life" issues and also by the encroachment of weevils, ants, mice and other rodents, birds, and other creatures who knew the cereals as "first choice" foods. It is estimated that today insects and other pests contribute to post-harvest grain losses of 10-40% worldwide, depending on the region, storage conditions, and more advanced pest control systems.) [The last period of moderate to extensive glaciation occurred from 29-14 kya, with the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age occurring c.20-5 kya.] Starch grains from taro, including on stone flake tools, date between 28.7 and 20.1 kya in a cave in the Solomon Islands. Nitraria drupes in Israel about 19 kya. [Sickles were developed about 15 kya.] (The Oldest Dryas cooling period lasted from approx. 18.5-14 kya. The Bølling-Allerød Interstadial period (aka the Late Glacial Interstadial, LGI), was a warming period from 14.69-12.89 kya, with the Older Dryas cooling also taking place from about 14.05-13.9 kya, and then the Younger Dryas sudden cooling occurring from 12.89-11.7 kya.) Unleavened flat bread-like products made with einkorn wheat and barley date to 14.4 kya in Jordan. Fermented beer residue has been dated to 13 kya in Natufian Jordan. Wild avocadoes were being eaten 13 kya in Mesoamerica and domesticated a couple millennia later there. [The Neolithic or New Stone Age occurred c.12-4 kya.] Brazil nuts were being consumed by Amazon tribes over 11 kya. Lentils were being consumed in Asia between 13-9.5 kya. Barley was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent around 11 kya (although wild barley was harvested in Southwest Asia 50 kya and in Israel 23 kya). Einkorn wheat was domesticated in Turkey 10.6-9.9 kya; emmer wheat was cultivated in Western Asia 10-9.4 kya; bread comes from 9.1 kya in Turkey and Europe. Azuki beans were being domesticated as early as 10 kya in Japan. Proso and foxtail millets were cultivated in China 10.3-8.7 kya. Olives from Asia Minor date back almost 10 kya, initially as collected wild fruit, while the oil was first produced some 8 kya. Carob wood and seeds date near Jericho from 10-8.5 kya. Wild corn grass was domesticated some 8.7 kya in Mesoamerica, while maize/corn was introduced to the Andes about 4 kya. Flax domesticated for oilseed production comes from 9 kya in Syria (while wild flax was used for textiles in Georgia 30 kya). Walnuts were being processed by 9 kya in Persia. Potatoes were domesticated 10-7 kya in Peru/Bolivia. Asian rice was domesticated in China some 13-8.2 kya. Prickly pear cactus fruits (and stems?) were in use 12-9 kya in Mexico. Wild oats were widely used 11.4-11.2 kya in Jordan, but domesticated in Europe around 3 kya. Bananas were first domesticated in New Guinea about 10 kya. Manioc/cassava was domesticated in the southwestern Amazon about 10-8 kya. The earliest known domestication of Cucurbita squash species occurred in Mexico around 10 kya. Bitter vetch was first grown in the Near East about 9.5 kya. Fish coated with seal fat and layered with acidic pine bark before being packed into the sealskin pouches and buried in a pit to ferment was an early method of cold-climate food preservation in the south-western province of Blekinge, Sweden to 9.2 kya. Earliest known evidence of a fermented alcoholic beverage -- made from fruit, honey, and rice -- comes from Neolithic China, 9-7.6 kya. Various beans have been cultivated since about 9 kya in Thailand. Pistachio seeds were a common food by 8.75 kya in Uzbekistan. Rye is believed to have been domesticated in central Turkey around 8.6 kya (although possibly wild rye was found in a site as early as 11.7 kya). Buckwheat was first cultivated about 8 kya in China. Dates were being cultivated in Arabia about 8 kya. Sugar cane was domesticated in New Guinea about 8 kya. Grapes were domesticated from their wild cousins about 8 kya in southwest Asia (wine residue dates from 8 kya Georgia). Flax was domesticated 8 kya in the Fertile Crescent region (but already used for dyed textiles 36 kya in Georgia). "Foodcrusts" on potshards from northern Europe 8-5 kya show traces of carp and other fresh-water fish, viburnum berries, amaranth, beets, and oak-leaved goosefoot -- an early recipe use, perhaps? The earliest phase of domestication of peanuts (possibly a wild species) in Peru dates to 7.6 kya. Chickpeas were cultivated in the Middle East about 7.5 kya. Soy beans were domesticated in China or another part of East Asia sometime about 7-5.5 kya. African yams were first domesticated about 7 kya (although there is evidence of wild yams being used for sustenance in West Africa before 50 kya). Around 7 kya, the Sumerians and Egyptians were already producing bread, wine, and beer through fermentation. Oranges were cultivated in India since at least 7 kya. Tomatoes were in cultivation by about 7 kya in South America (but these definitely were not the beefsteak variety!). Quinoa was locally domesticated about 7 kya (Peru/Bolivia). Onions have been grown and selectively bred in cultivation since at least 7 kya in West and Central Asia. Peas were being cultivated in Egypt 6.8-6.4 kya. Atriplex was eaten by 6.5 kya in Scandinavia. Salt from mines dates to 6.2-5.6 kya in Spain. The domestication of tiny wild apples occurred 6-5.5 kya in Kazakhstan. Teff is believed to have originated in Ethiopia 6-3 kya. Mexico and Central America domesticated chili peppers over 6 kya. Salt from lakes arguably was 6 kya in China. Cotton fibers date to 7.2 kya in Jordan; first domesticated from four different species in Central America the Andes, Arabia and Syria, and the Indus Valley by at least 6 kya. The majority of Indian alcoholic beverages have been prepared using dry starter culture and the back-slopping method since 6 kya. The Egyptians used garlic for medicinal, culinary and spiritual purposes as early as 5.5 kya. Kodo and Little millets were domesticated on the Indian subcontinent about 5.7-5 kya. [The Bronze Age occurred c.5.2-2.9 kya.] Sorghum was domesticated before 5.1 kya in Eastern Sudan. Horse chestnuts were being processed in Japan before 5 kya. Watermelon was being used in southern Africa some 5 kya. Chufa/tiger nuts tubers were cultivated in Egypt around 5 kya (while tubers of wild chufa date to around 18 kya there). The Sycamore fig was cultivated in Egypt before 5 kya. By 5 kya, almonds were being domesticated on the eastern Mediterranean coast and peaches in China. Oil palms were grown in West Africa as far back as 5 kya. Yam cultivation also independently developed in Southeast Asia about 5 kya. The sunflower was first domesticated in Eastern North America about 5 kya. Hemp for fiber was cultivated in China 4.8 kya. Lettuce was cultivated since about 4.7 kya in Egypt. Melon cultivation dates back over 4 kya in regions of Africa and Asia. Pears and Chinese jujube were cultivated in China 4 kya. Beans were independently cultivated 4 kya in both Europe and Peru. Cocoa was used 3.5 kya near coast of Gulf of Mexico. [The Iron Age occurred c.3.2-2.55 kya.] Lemons were possibly first cultivated 3 kya in northeastern India. Sesame from India has been cultivated for seed oil production since at least 3 kya. Cabbage was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe before 3 kya. African rice was domesticated in Africa about 3 kya. Processed acorns in Iberia date to at least 2.7 kya (although evidence shows that hominins were eating them as early as 700 kya). Crystalline sugar was made 2.5 kya in northern India. Eggplants were being grown in India before 2.3 kya. Coconuts are believed to have introduced from the Philippines about 2.25 kya into both the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Vanilla was used 0.9 kya by Totonac people in what is now central-eastern Mexico, though possibly 2.0 kya by Olmecs before them; however, there is also evidence of vanilla-flavored wine in Israel 2.6 kya. (Vanillin -- artificial vanilla -- can develop from eugenol by oxidation. As eugenol is a compound in several herbs that may have been used to spice up the wine the vanillin might have developed from the eugenol content of spices like Bay Leaf or Clove.) There developed differences in mechanic and thermal processing traditions, particularly between Eurasian oven-based traditions of grinding and roasting, and South Asian pottery-based traditions of boiling. As the material manifestations of these traditions, including grinding stones, ovens and pottery, supersede the emergence of domestic plants by millennia, it is likely that these traditions also advanced the plant use, processing and landscape management practices that allowed for the fixation of some domestication traits in key plant taxa. The discovery of Middle Paleolithic foodstuffs produced through the coarse-grinding and cooking of grass grains and pulses may in fact place the beginnings of the Eurasian grinding and roasting tradition with regional Middle Palaeolithic Neanderthal and early human-plant processing practices. The culinary practice and tradition then honed over millennia likely effected and was affected by the development of specialized cooking technologies. Critically, these interactions occur against the backdrop of varying and changing plant ecology in the broadest sense (i.e. plant distribution, abundance, and interaction with environment and climate). The layering of these complex dynamics over generations, produced protracted, and likely non-linear, trajectories of domestication. Plants were originally a small part of our diets for flavor, as a temporary medicine, or as a major part to fill one's belly by being a starvation or survival or poverty food. In the past we probably just assumed that all those plant foods were digested and absorbed as we ate this stuff day after day. Now as carnivores we are seeing the undeniable truth about how much our bodies cannot digest this stuff -- without any cover up. We are learning and more aware. We might be looking to see what of all the myriad plants we used to enjoy ("pay no attention to that bloating or those farts" -- they are "signs of health") which we might still be able to get away with eating. And surprise, the answer is virtually none. |
